Factors such as religion, social class and rural or urban location all affect the situation of Egyptian women, but it is cultural traditions – which are often discriminatory – that most strongly shape their lives. The law is partly based on Islamic Sharia and does provide for equality between the sexes, but still discriminates against women in some aspects. One example of these influences is that Egyptian women have fewer employment and economic opportunities than men, partly because of high female illiteracy rates but also because society generally discourages women from pursuing careers.
Women in Egypt face several inequalities in regards to family matters. The minimum legal age of marriage is quite young – 16 years for women and 18 years for men – and the practice of early marriage remains common in rural and less-developed regions, where young girls are married off by their parents. A 2004 United Nations report estimated that 15 per cent of girls between 15 and 19 years of age were married, divorced or widowed.
Polygamy is allowed under Islamic law: Muslim men may take as many as four wives. The prevalence of this practice, however, is believed to be relatively low. Kurtz estimates that in 2001 less than 3 per cent of Egyptian men had multiple wives. The passing of the kuhl’ law granted Muslim women the right to divorce without the husband’s consent, but the procedure often requires that they forfeit many of their financial entitlements. Copt women, who make up 9 per cent of the population, do not have the right to kuhl’.
Women in Egypt face discrimination with regards to parental authority: Islamic law views fathers as the natural guardian of children; mothers are the physical custodians, but have no legal rights. Prior to amendments put in place in 2005, the law stated that in the event of divorce, the mother was granted custody of children until a specified age (10 years for boys and 12 years for girls). The amendments extended the woman’s custody to 15 years, irrespective of the sex of the children, and also allowed children to choose with whom they would like to live after reaching the age of 15. Women can now also confer citizenship to children born to non-Egyptian fathers.
According to Islamic law regarding inheritance, women may inherit from their father, mother, husband or children and, under certain conditions, from other family members. However, their share is generally smaller than that to which men are entitled.
Women in Egypt have a very low level of protection for physical integrity. Violence against women, including domestic violence, is relatively common and includes both physical and psychological abuse. The Penal Code criminalises all forms of assault against women but certain provisions are weak, and depend on the victims’ age and relation to the perpetrator. Domestic violence is perceived as a private matter and many incidents remain unreported. Honour killings have occurred in the country, but are reportedly uncommon.
Egypt’s combined fourth and fifth report to the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) claims that female genital mutilation (FGM) occurs only in remote parts of the country. By contrast, independent sources hold that it is an almost universal practice, with 85 per cent to 95 per cent of the female population having undergone FGM and equal prevalence among Muslim and Christian women. Despite efforts by NGOs, religious scholars and the Egyptian government (the Penal Code contains provisions against FGM) to eradicate FGM, the practice remains deeply rooted in Egyptian society.
There is no evidence to suggest that Egypt is a country of concern in relation to missing women.
Egyptian law does not restrict women’s access to land, access to property other than land or access to bank loans. An increasing number of women are engaged in business transactions and financial activities, even though some culturally rooted traditions may restrict their actual control over and management of assets. Women are often regarded as the weaker sex and unable to deal with financial matters; a study by El-Safty shows that, in Egypt, this belief is central to the notion that the world of money belongs to men.
Women have a moderate level of civil liberty in Egypt. They generally have freedom of movement, but more so in the cities than in rural areas. To travel outside the country, unmarried women under 21 years of age must obtain their father’s permission to obtain a passport; similarly, wives of any age need their husband’s permission.
Women’s freedom of dress has been the subject of lively debate in Egypt. Fully 70 per cent to 80 per cent of women wear a veil in public. The Associated Press reports that while some women are required by male family members to cover themselves, many others choose to wear the veil to show their devotion to Islam.
Afrol News (n.d.), Gender Profile: Egypt, www.afrol.com/Categories/Women/profiles/egypt_women.htm.
The Associated Press (2006), “A Look at the Wearing of Veils, and Disputes on the Issue, Across the Muslim World”, International Herald Tribune, Paris.
CIDA (Canadian International Development Agency) (2002), INC Gender Profile: Egypt, CIDA-INC, Gati¬neau, QC.
CEDAW (Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women) (2000), Consideration of Reports Submitted by States Parties Under Article 18 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women: Egypt, Combined Fourth and Fifth Periodic Reports of States Parties, CEDAW/C/EGY/4-5, CEDAW, New York, NY.
El-Azhary Sonbol, A. (2005), “Country Report: Egypt”, Women’s Rights in the Middle East and North Africa: Citizenship and Justice, Freedom House Inc., Washington DC.
El-Safty, M. (2004), “Women in Egypt: Islamic Rights Versus Cultural Practice”, Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, Vol. 51, Springer Netherlands.
El-Zanaty, F. and A. Way (2006), Egypt Demographic and Health Survey 2005, Ministry of Health and Population, National Population Council, and ORC Macro, Cairo.
Klasen, K. and C. Wink (2003), “Missing Women: Revisiting the Debate”, Feminist Economics, Vol. 9, No. 2-3, Routledge, London.
Kurtz, S. (2006), “Polygamy Versus Democracy: You Can’t Have Both”, The Weekly Standard, 2006, Vol. 011, No. 36, News American Inc., Washington, DC.
Leila, R. (2005), “More Maternal Rights”, Al-Ahram Weekly, No. 733., Al-Ahram, Cairo.
Uhlman, K. (2004), Overview of Shari’a and Prevalent Customs in Islamic Societies: Divorce and Child Custody, Expert Law, www.expertlaw.com.
UN (United Nations) (2004), World Fertility Report 2003, UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, New York, NY.
